9 causas para perder la ciudadanía de Estados Unidos

9 causas para perder la ciudadanà ­a de Estados Unidos Los ciudadanos de los Estados Unidos pueden perder su condicià ³n de estadounidenses si realizan determinadas acciones que llevan aparejada como consecuencia la pà ©rdida de la nacionalidad. Esto aplica tanto a los ciudadanos que adquirieron su condicià ³n en el momento del nacimiento como a los que la obtuvieron posteriormente, incluido el trmite que se conoce como naturalizacià ³n, por el que los residentes permanentes legales se convierten en ciudadanos. Puntos clave: pà ©rdida de la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense Son raros los casos de retirada de la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense. La ley tiene previstos nueve casos en los que puede darse pero todos ellos requieren que se trate de un acto voluntario y consciente.Una situacià ³n diferente son los casos de desnaturalizacià ³n por fraude, que se han incrementado en los à ºltimos aà ±os. Se est quitando la ciudadanà ­a a personas que mintieron en las aplicaciones de naturalizacià ³n, obtencià ³n de la tarjeta de residencia o las que cometieron un delito antes de naturalizarse y no revelaron este problema en la aplicacià ³n. 9 acciones que, en teorà ­a, podrà ­an provocar la pà ©rdida de la ciudadanà ­a de los Estados Unidos Segà ºn la Seccià ³n 359 de la Ley de Inmigracià ³n y Nacionalidad (INA, por sus siglas en inglà ©s), en la actualidad un estadounidense solamente podrà ­a verse privado de su ciudadanà ­a cuando se dan una de las circunstancias siguientes: Prestar juramento o declaracià ³n formal  de lealtad a otro paà ­s despuà ©s de cumplir los 18 aà ±os.Obtener la nacionalidad de otro paà ­s de forma voluntaria y por peticià ³n propia despuà ©s de haber cumplido los 18 aà ±os de edad.  Servir en cualquier categorà ­a en un Ejà ©rcito extranjero hostil hacia Estados UnidosServir como oficial comisionado o no comisionado en el Ejà ©rcito de otro paà ­sServir como soldado en un Ejà ©rcito no hostil hacia Estados UnidosTrabajar para un gobierno extranjero despuà ©s de cumplir los 18 aà ±os Renunciar voluntaria y formalmente a la ciudadanà ­a como hicieron estos 10 famosos. Sentencia firme condenatoria por traicià ³n a los Estados UnidosCondena firme por intentar derrocar el gobierno de los Estados Unidos En el caso de trabajar para gobierno extranjero es necesario que adems, se dà © una de las siguientes circunstancias: poseer tambià ©n la nacionalidad del paà ­s de dicho gobierno , es decir, debe darse un caso de doble nacionalidad prestar algà ºn tipo de juramento o promesa como condicià ³n para acceder a ese puesto de trabajo. Por otro lado, en el caso de renuncia voluntaria a la nacionalidad estadounidense, si se est fuera de los Estados Unidos la declaracià ³n debe hacerse en una embajada o consulado de USA. Por el contrario, si la persona que desea renunciar se encuentra dentro del paà ­s deber contactar con el Departamento de Seguridad Interna. Sin embargo, no siempre que se produzca uno de estos hechos se pierde la nacionalidad. Ya que por ley es necesario que concurran obligatoriamente dos requisitos siguientes: que el acto sea voluntarioque el acto se realice con la intencià ³n de abandonar la condicià ³n de ciudadano. Y es que en  Afroyim v. Rusk, una sentencia de  1967 la Corte Suprema reconoce que un ciudadano americano tiene un derecho constitucional a permanecer siendo ciudadano, a menos que voluntariamente renuncie a la nacionalidad. Y en 1980 con la sentencia  Vance v. Terrace,  la Corte establecià ³ que tal renuncia se puede hacer mediante una declaracià ³n o mediante accià ³n. Es fcil determinar que el acto es voluntario. Lo que no es tan claro es determinar cundo existe la intencià ³n de realmente dejar de ser estadounidense. Para esto aplica la norma de las presunciones y a continuacià ³n se explica cà ³mo se debe entender. Cundo el gobierno de EE.UU. entiende que hay intencià ³n de renunciar a la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense Adems, de obviamente, cuando se renuncia formalmente a la ciudadanà ­a, se pierde, las autoridades consideran que hay intencià ³n de dejar de ser estadounidense cuando: Se sirve en cualquier posicià ³n en un Ejà ©rcito en hostilidades contra los Estados UnidosCuando hay una condena por traicià ³n o por intentar derrocar al gobiernoCuando se sirve a un gobierno extranjero en una posicià ³n polà ­tica En estos tres casos, los oficiales consulares investigarn  si efectivamente se da la intencià ³n de abandonar la ciudadanà ­a, como en principio se presume. Y en base a dicha investigacià ³n, resolvern. Cundo el gobierno entiende que NO hay intencià ³n de renunciar Existe una premisa administrativa que considera que se tiene la intencià ³n de seguir siendo estadounidense en todos los dems casos no previstos en el caso anterior. Es decir, cuando se presta alianza a otro paà ­s, se adquiere su nacionalidad, se presta servicio en un Ejà ©rcito extranjero no hostil o se acepta un trabajo para otro gobierno a nivel no polà ­tico.   La persona que realiza cualquiera de las cuatro actividades arriba mencionadas no necesita pedir permiso antes de hacerlas ni tampoco notificar a ninguna autoridad americana su intencià ³n de seguir siendo estadounidense, ya que eso es lo que se presume. Pero es posible que cuando pida la renovacià ³n del pasaporte americano o solicite registrarse para votar o cualquier otra actividad reservada a ciudadanos un oficial consular le pregunte si al realizar una de las cuatro acciones antes seà ±aladas deseaba renunciar a la nacionalidad estadounidense. Bastar con contestar â€Å"no† para seguir siendo americano. Sin embargo, en el pasado no era asà ­ y muchos ciudadanos perdieron su nacionalidad. En estos casos podrà ­a ser posible recuperarla. Casos de desnaturalizacià ³n por fraude Entre 1990 y 2017 hubo un total de 305 desnaturalizaciones, es decir, 11 casos por aà ±o en los que se le quità ³ la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense a personas que la habà ­an adquirido por medio de la naturalizacià ³n. Pero desde ese aà ±o las desnaturalizaciones han incrementado y el gobierno reconoce que en la actualidad hay aproximadamente unos 2.500 casos siendo investigados. Adems, en el presupuesto del aà ±o fiscal 2019 hay destinados a ICE 207 millones para investigar posibles casos de desnaturalizacià ³n y que le permiten contratar a abogados e investigadores para intentar encontrar casos en los que el ciudadano naturalizado cometià ³ fraude, es decir, mintià ³, en el proceso de naturalizacià ³n u obtencià ³n de la green card. Adems, se buscan particularmente casos en los que el ahora ciudadano cometià ³ alguna felonà ­a antes de adquirir la ciudadanà ­a y no lo reportà ³. Especialmente, los investigadores estn interesados en los casos de personas que recibieron una orden de deportacià ³n pero se quedaron en el paà ­s y, posteriormente, adquirieron la ciudadanà ­a bajo otro nombre. Esto es posible porque se estn investigando huellas digitales de los aà ±os 90 y anteriores que no estaban digitalizadas y se estn comparando con los expedientes de naturalizacià ³n. Consecuencias de la pà ©rdida de la ciudadanà ­a  de EE.UU. Se dejan de tener todos los privilegios, derechos y libertades propios de ser estadounidense Adems, a partir de ese momento se deber solicitar una visa para entrar a Estados Unidos, a menos que la persona sea titular de un pasaporte que le permita entrar como turista bajo el Programa de Exencià ³n de Visas. Si careciese de otro pasaporte, la persona que voluntariamente deja de ser estadounidense se considera que es aptrida y carece de la proteccià ³n de ningà ºn estado. En todo caso, la renuncia no evitar que esa persona sea sometida a juicio por posibles delitos que haya cometido en EE.UU.. Asimismo, continà ºa estando obligada a hacer frente a las obligaciones financieras que haya contraà ­do en EE.UU. y a las militares, si las tuviera. Por à ºltimo, dejar de ser americano no supone el fin automtico de la relacià ³n con los impuestos americanos, ya que habr que seguir cumpliendo esta obligacià ³n por 10 aà ±os. Se aconseja consultar con el IRS para asegurarse de cules son las obligaciones pendientes en materia de tasas. La renuncia a la nacionalidad americana es definitiva. Es decir, una vez realizada no hay vuelta atrs. La à ºnica excepcià ³n es plantear una demanda administrativa o judicial y ganarla. Y en el caso de las personas que dejaron de ser americanas motu proprio cuando eran menores de edad, debern notificar al Departamento de Estado que desean volver a ser estadounidenses dentro de los seis meses siguientes a haber cumplido los 18 aà ±os. Como es un acto de grandes consecuencias, antes de llevarlo a cabo es recomendable consular sobre el proceso para entender todos sus aspectos. Las dudas se atienden en la Oficina de Asuntos Consulares del DoS en Washington, llamando al 1-202-736-9110 o enviando un correo electrà ³nico a ASKPRIstate.gov Derechos y obligaciones de los estadounidenses en el exterior Los ciudadanos tienen obligacià ³n de pagar impuestos, aunque residan habitualmente en otro paà ­s. Pero tambià ©n tienen derechos, como en determinados casos transmitir la ciudadanà ­a a sus hijos, recibir el pago del cheque del seguro social o votar en las elecciones para Presidente registrndose en el à ºltimo estado en el que se residià ³. Si han formado una familia y desean regresar a Estados Unidos, podrn solicitar los papeles por matrimonio para su cà ³nyuge, si bien pueden existir obstculos que deben ser tenidos en cuenta. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

Frequencies and Relative Frequencies in Histograms

Frequencies and Relative Frequencies in Histograms In the construction of a histogram, there are several steps that we must undertake before we actually draw our graph. After setting up the classes that we will use, we assign each of our data values to one of these classes then  count the number of data values that fall into each class and draw the heights of the bars. These heights can be determined by two different ways that are interrelated: frequency or relative frequency. The frequency of a class is the count of how many data values fall into a certain class wherein classes with greater frequencies have higher bars and classes with lesser frequencies have lower bars. On the other hand, relative frequency requires one additional step as it is the measure of what proportion or percent of the data values fall into a particular class. A straightforward calculation determines the relative frequency from the frequency by adding up all the classes frequencies and dividing the count by each class by the sum of these frequencies. The Difference Between Frequency and Relative Frequency To see the difference between frequency and relative frequency we will consider the following example. Suppose we are looking at the history grades of students in 10th grade and have the classes corresponding to letter grades: A, B, C, D, F. The number of each of these grades gives us a frequency for each class: 7 students with an F9 students with a D18 students with a C12 students with a B4 students with an A To determine the relative frequency for each class we first add the total number of data points: 7 9 18 12 4 50. Next we, divide each frequency by this sum 50. 0.14 14% students with an F0.18 18% students with a D0.36 36% students with a C0.24 24% students with a B0.08 8% students with an A The initial data set above with the number of students who fall into each class (letter grade) would be indicative of the frequency while the percentage in the second data set represents the relative frequency of these grades. An easy way to define the difference between frequency and relative frequency is that frequency relies on the actual values of each class in a statistical data set while relative frequency compares these individual values to the overall totals of all classes concerned in a data set. Histograms Either frequencies or relative frequencies can be used for a histogram. Although the numbers along the vertical axis will be different, the overall shape of the histogram will remain unchanged. This is because the heights relative to each other are the same whether we are using frequencies or relative frequencies. Relative frequency histograms are important because the heights can be interpreted as probabilities. These probability histograms provide a graphical display of a probability distribution, which can be used to determine the likelihood of certain results to occur within a given population. Histograms are useful tools to quickly observe trends in populations in order for statisticians, lawmakers, and community organizers alike to be able to determine the best course of action to affect the most people in a given population.

Hart-Devlin Debate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Hart-Devlin Debate - Essay Example However, the law is not against the private lives of people and the activities they undertake in private. Therefore, a law cannot be imposed that interferes with the private lives of people. The report by the committee sparked a reaction from Patrick Devlin. Devlin in his discussion on â€Å"the enforcement of morals† argued that criminal law is not only meant to protect individuals but the entire society. Therefore, if people are engaged in activities that are against the society norms should be criminated. He further argued that criminal law should not only protect criminal activities that directly affect people, but rather should protect society from adverse effects imposed by individuals both in public and in private (Cane 22). Herbert Hart reacted against the argument of Devlin in a radio broadcast. Hart argued with regard to the â€Å"harm principle† by J. S Mills. He argued that the only reason in which power can be correctly exercised over any individual in soci ety against his will is, to ensure no harm imposed to others by the individual (Cane 23). An argumentative debate between the two individuals ensued, both of them believing their side of the argument to be reasonable. Devlin argued that the society supposed to be united by legal and moral conducts. Therefore, any actions that jeopardizes society’s norms should be criminated (Cane 24). The society supposed to impose its morality so that cultural values and believes can be maintained. Hart argued against this argument claiming that Devlin did not provide factual evidence of his arguments. Hart claimed that society norms are widely used; therefore, using them to deny a group of people to conduct their private activities is not respecting the morals of individuals. Some contributions made regarding the subject of law and morals of society (Cane 25). Therefore, in order to establish a valid argument of the case standards ought to be set and difference between harm and moral standa rds should be established. In addition, a relationship between law and morality should also be discussed in details. The debate sparked by the report established by wolfenden committee. The committee was established to put in consideration the law governing prostitution and male homosexual behavior. Nonetheless, the debate that ensued concentrated on the subject of sexual conduct and morals. The committee was discussing the issue of criminal activities with regard to homosexuality. The debate concentrated on criminal law and did not put in consideration other forms of law (Cane 26). The society plays a significant role to play with regard to ensuring the community and the country at large behave accordingly. According to Devlin, the actions of individuals can affect the outlook of the entire society. Therefore, when lawmakers are developing laws they should put into consideration a person’s liberty (Cane 27). In addition, technological advancement is changing overtime; theref ore, it is reasonable enough for the society to come to terms with the changes. Devlin’s view After the committee published its report, Devlin was quick to respond to the report through a public lecture. Devlin argued that morals and laws should go hand in hand. Behavior of an individual does not only affect the individual alone but the entire society (Cane 28). Therefore, legalizing homosexuality is offensive to the society as it goes against the moral standards of the society. the society’s cultural values should be protected by the law. Devlin’s argument meant to protect the society through the

Business Analysis of Wal-Mart Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Analysis of Wal-Mart - Research Paper Example Currently, Wal-Mart has about 4,573 stores worldwide along with 730,000 associates that are evident in the form of their presence in fourteen countries (Vatalyst, 2012). In Canada, Brazil, Argentina and United Kingdom, Wal-Mart has wholly owned operations while it has several joint ventures in China along with some majority owned subsidiaries. In many international stores, Wal-Mart operates under various banners with one aim that is to provide best quality products at low prices so that customers can save money and live a better life as well. The primary idea behind the establishment of Wal-Mart was to provide high quality branded products at low prices. In order to have low prices, the company ensures that the cost is kept to a minimum level with the help of excellence in warehousing as it has developed cordial relations with its suppliers and advancements in information technology have helped the store to ensure that inventory level is properly maintained (Piercy, Cravens & Lane, 2 010). Economic trends influencing business Wal-Mart has been severely impacted by economic recession and increase in costs of transportation and utilities. The second quarter forecast of corporation reported that the share prices are lower and profits also reduced considerably as compared to first quarter profits (Cheng, 2012). Lately, shares of Wal-Mart went down to $56.74 which meant it reduced by 2.2%. Other costs that have impacted Wal-Mart’s sales are increase in commodities and fuel cost; as a result product placement and transportation became one of the major areas of concern for the store. The number of economic worries for consumers has increased significantly i.e. from gasoline prices that have reached highest prices to housing and credit markets that have declined radically. Such economic downturns have affected the spending power of budget conscious consumers who prefer to shop from Wal-Mart rather than do bargaining for their shopping. Since economic recession ha s impacted lives of USA consumers’, they are now shifting to Wal-Mart for shopping at low prices (Cheng, 2009). In order to cut down its cost, Wal-Mart has controlled its promotional activities as it needs to maintain certain profit level so that it can survive in such financial distressful situations. Wal-Mart still uses its tagline â€Å"Save Money. Live Better† and in order to reinforce this image it has expanded into generic drug prescription program. Currently, store is offering 90 days supplies of about 350 medications for $10 and also $4 over-the-counter drugs so it can expand its sales of pharmaceutical products and even bolster its store traffic. Strategies and Tactics used by Wal-Mart for addressing the changes Since Wal-Mart wants to reach more customers and observing that industries are getting global, Wal-Mart launched its website in 2010. It consolidated all its E-commerce activities worldwide into one Global E-commerce Division (Parker, 2012). The primar y objectives of this Division comprise of developing and executing a global strategy for E-commerce; provide acceleration for global growth of online channel and creation of technological platforms and applications for every market of Wal-Mart. In order to address the global changes that are taking place, Wal-Mart has revised its business strategies to incorporate these alterations in the market and ensure that they are aligned with organization’s main goal of providing superior quality products at low prices.

America Online :: essays research papers

Mission Statement "To become the world’s most respected and valued company by connecting, informing and entertaining people everywhere in innovative ways that will enrich their lives." Introduction America On-line (AOL), the largest commercial on-line service provider in the US, has been presented with a daunting task. Remaining a viable competitor in an increasingly crowded, fast- changing and competitive market. . Consumer services are entering a highly contested market that is expected to be even more competitive with the arrival of telephone and cable television giants in the months to come. For example, AT&T dealt a devastating blow for AOL as well as hundreds of other Internet providers by offering five hours per month free Internet usage to its approximately 90 million customers, 20 million of whom already have personal computers. AOL, the largest commercial on-line service, offers their customers more than access to the Internet. AOL features include chat rooms, electronic magazines, software and entertainment services. Analysts believe that such content makes these services less vulnerable in the short run to AT&T's offerings. A value-added feature of AOL is its proprietary system that it provides users access to proprietary content. For AOL, that which makes them unique (proprietary system), also makes them most vulnerable. AOL has aggressively marketed to the mass media of on-line users. Marketing efforts have focused on selling the idea of AOL as an easy-to-use, fun, interactive, "community" with a lot of content exclusively provided to its members. AOL distributes their software via direct mailings, inserts of diskettes as well as request forms for disks/CDs in magazines, downloadable web sites, OEM bundling agreements, media partnerships and retail sales. In 1995 AOL increased their level of direct marketing. As previously stated, AOL hopes to capture up to 97 million users, as well as expanding internationally. America On-Line: Customer Value & Satisfaction America On-Line it has delivered customer value and satisfaction by its narrow focus on average consumers, and its determination to make using its services simple and clear. AOL is known for providing the most convenient and easiest-to-use interactive service available. The company pioneered technologies such as keywords for simple navigation and the buddy-list feature to enable instant messaging by displaying member’s contacts who are online As the internet becomes more central to consumers daily lives, people are increasingly demanding ways, in addition to the PC, to access- anytime, any place- features and content they rely on.

A Little Wiggle Room

Today we will be looking at two articles written by University of California Psychology Director Craig Haney.   He specializes in the assessment of institutional environments especially the psychological effects of incarceration.He has written several scholarly articles and is involved in many research projects mostly specializing in the effect of incarceration and overcrowding, making headway into the understanding of the effect an overtaxed system has on an individual.He looks at issues such as recidivism, prison violence, mental and emotional disorders and the long term effect of solitary or supermax facilities when inflicted on lower security inmates due to overpopulation.In these two articles entitled â€Å"The Wages of Prison Overcrowding† and â€Å"Prison Overcrowding: Harmful Consequences and Dysfunctional Reactions† I believe Haney tries to not only explain the great toll that overcrowding has on an individual as well as the taxpayer, but offers solutions to ease out of the current trend spending more tax dollars converting facilities into sleeping quarters.â€Å"There is a clear association between the restriction of living space and the occurrence of disciplinary violations.† (Haney 2)   Haney goes on to point out the fact that when a prison is filled beyond its capacity, there is less of everything to go around, causing hoarding, violence and tension between prisoners.Prisoners are forced to do without basic necessities such as showers and toilets being forced to wait for availability increasing tension inside the facility.Guards are left unable to control the already agitated population caused when people who may already be lacking social skills necessary to function in everyday life are forced to live in close quarters with others.   The current solution most prisons call for is more staff, better armaments for the staff, and better punitive measures with which to control the inmates, making the prison more painful and h armful to the inmates.Areas normally reserved for recreational facilities make way for bed space with basic security contributing to inmate idleness and inactivity further worsening the problem.The prisoners are left with less to do and less outlets for releasing tension, the rates of prisoner animosity towards each other rises, as well as towards the guard’s.Facilities generally used to rehabilitate prisoners, such as education and prison work facilities are transformed into bed space, leaving prisoners with unfilled needs, adding to the problem of recidivism.He has shown that a majority of prisoners read at or below a third grade level calling them â€Å"marginally literate† (Haney 5) and points out they leave prison in very much the same condition.Unprepared and therefore unable to function as normal productive citizens with a lack of education and basic job skills, they return to their old ways and end up back inside the system in much the same condition they left prison in.  In his articles Haney attempts to inform not just his fellow scholars, but also the individual states and penal systems on the effects they are having on the people theYincarcerate.How being pushed through a system too overworked to notice a prisoner with special needs such as mental of emotional disabilities can have a serious effect on the people they are forced to live in close quarters with.   This eventually leads to a breakdown of the prisoner moral, leading to dissention, and prison violence.These articles are a great starting point for any discussion into prison life, recidivism, prison overcrowding or assessments on how tax dollars should be spent.   I share the author’s belief that if nothing is done and eventual breakdown of the prison system is inevitable.He points out that the current solution, bringing in more weapons and more brutal tactics by guards can have an even worse effect on the individual prisoner, causing low risk inmates into recidi vism.   Tactics that enforce order and control over inmates rather than improving living conditions often worsen violence inside prison walls.Rather than deal with the issues that caused the potential violence in the first place they fight fire with fire.  Ã‚   While (overcrowding) â€Å"is not the only cause of the sometimes dangerous conditions and potential for abuse that exists in many of our nation’s prisons, it is a central and critical issue that must be effectively addressed if these other problems are to be solved.† (Haney 12)SourcesHaney, Craig. â€Å"Prison Overcrowding: Harmful Consequences and Dysfunctional  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reactions.† prisoncommission.org. 2 Nov 2008. Commission of Safety and Abuse inAmericas Prisons. 3 Feb. 2009 Haney, Craig. â€Å"The Wages of Prison Overcrowding: Harmful Psychological  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Consequences and Dysfunctional Correctional Reactions.† http://law.wustl.edu/. 5  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dec. 2008. Washington U niversity Law School. 3 Feb. 2009.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Toltec Empire - Semi-Mythical Legend of the Aztecs

The Toltecs and the Toltec Empire is a semi-mythical legend reported by the Aztecs that appears to have had some reality in prehispanic Mesoamerica. But the evidence for its existence as a cultural entity is conflicting and contradictory. The empire, if thats what it was (and it probably was not), has been at the heart of a long-standing debate in archaeology: where is the ancient city of Tollan, a city described by the Aztecs in oral and pictorial histories as the center of all art and wisdom? And who were the Toltecs, the legendary rulers of this glorious city? Fast Facts: Toltec Empire The Toltec Empire was a semi-mythical origin story told by the Aztecs.  Aztec oral histories described the Toltec capital Tollan as having buildings made of jade and gold.  The Toltecs were said to have invented all the arts and sciences of the Aztecs, and their leaders were the noblest and wisest of people.  Archaeologists associated Tula with Tollan, but the Aztecs were ambivalent about where the capital was.   The Aztec Myth of the Toltecs Aztec oral histories and their surviving codexes describe the Toltecs as wise, civilized, wealthy urban people  who lived in Tollan, a city filled with buildings made of jade and gold. The Toltecs, said the historians, invented all the arts and sciences of Mesoamerica, including the Mesoamerican calendar; they were led by their wise king Quetzalcoatl. For the Aztecs, the Toltec leader was the ideal ruler, a noble warrior who was learned in the history and priestly duties of Tollan and had the qualities of military and commercial leadership. The Toltec rulers led a warrior society that included a storm god (Aztec  Tlaloc or Maya  Chaac), with Quetzalcoatl at the heart of the origin myth. The Aztec leaders claimed they were descendants of the Toltec leaders, establishing a semi-divine right to rule. The Myth of Quetzalcoatl The Aztec accounts of the Toltec myth say that Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl was a wise, old humble king who taught his people to write and measure time, to work gold, jade, and feathers, to grow cotton, dye it and weave it into fabulous mantles, and to raise maize and cacao. In the 15th century, the Aztecs said he was born in the year 1 Reed (equivalent to the year 843 CE) and died 52 years later in the year 1 Reed (895 CE). He built four houses for fasting and prayer and a temple with beautiful columns carved with serpent reliefs. But his piety excited anger among the sorcerers of Tollan, who were intent on destroying his people. The sorcerers tricked Quetzalcoatl into drunken behavior that shamed him so he fled east, reaching the edge of the sea. There, dressed in divine feathers and a turquoise mask, he burned himself up and rose into the sky, becoming the morning star. Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec and Aztec god; the plumed serpent, god of the wind, learning and the priesthood, master of life, creator and civiliser, patron of every art and inventor of metallurgy (manuscript). Bridgeman Art Library / Getty Images Aztec accounts dont all agree: at least one says that Quetzalcoatl destroyed Tollan as he left, burying all the marvelous things and burning everything else. He changed the cacao trees to mesquite and sent the birds to Anahuac, another legendary land at the edge of the water. The story as recounted by Bernardino Sahagà ºn (1499–1590)—who certainly had his own agenda—says that Quetzalcoatl fashioned a raft of serpents and sailed across the sea. Sahagà ºn was a Spanish Franciscan friar, and he and other chroniclers are today believed to have created the myth associating Quetzalcoatl with the conquistador  Cortes-—but thats another story. Toltecs and Desirà ©e Charnay The site of Tula in Hidalgo state was first equated with Tollan in the archaeological sense in the late 19th century—the Aztecs were ambivalent about which set of ruins was Tollan, although Tula was certainly known to them. French expeditionary photographer Desirà ©e Charnay (1828–1915) raised money to follow the legendary journey of Quetzalcoatl from Tula eastward to the Yucatan peninsula. When he arrived at the Maya capital of Chichà ©n Itzà ¡, he noticed serpent columns and a ball court ring that reminded him of those he had seen at Tula, 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) northwest of Chichen. The ruins of the Toltec site Tula were one of the ancient archaeological sites in the Basin of Mexico that awed the arriving Mexica and inspired their growth into the Aztec Empire. Travel Ink / Getty Images Charnay had read the 16th century Aztec accounts and noted that the Toltec were thought by the Aztecs to have created civilization, and he interpreted the architectural and stylistic similarities to mean that the capital city of the Toltecs  was Tula, with Chichen Itza its remote and conquered colony; and by the 1940s, a majority of archaeologists did too. But since that time, archaeological and historical evidence has shown that to be problematic. Problems, and a Trait List There are lots of problems trying to associate Tula or any other specific set of ruins as Tollan. Tula was fairly large but it didnt have much control over its close neighbors, let alone long distances. Teotihuacan, which definitely was large enough to be reckoned an empire, was long gone by the 9th century. There are lots of places throughout Mesoamerica with linguistic references to Tula or Tollan or Tullin or Tulan: Tollan Chollolan is the full name for Cholula, for example, which has some Toltec aspects. The word seems to mean something like place of reeds. And even though the traits identified as Toltec appear at many sites along the Gulf Coast and elsewhere, there isnt much evidence for military conquest; the adoption of Toltec traits appears to have been selective, rather than imposed. Traits identified as Toltec include temples with colonnaded galleries; tablud-tablero architecture; chacmools and ball courts; relief sculptures with various versions of the mythical Quetzalcoatl jaguar-serpent-bird icon; and relief images of predatory animals and raptorial birds holding human hearts. There are also Atlantean pillars with images of men in the Toltec military outfit (also seen in chacmools): wearing pillbox helmets and butterfly-shaped pectorals and carrying atlatls. There is also a form of government that is part of the Toltec package, a council-based government rather than a centralized kingship, but where that arose is anybodys guess. Some of the Toltec traits can be traced to the Early Classic period, of 4th century AD or even earlier. Atlantean warriors, Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, archaeological site of Tula, Mexico. Toltec Civilisation. De Agostini / C. Novara / Getty Images Current Thinking It seems clear that although there is no real consensus among the archaeological community about the existence of a single Tollan or a specific Toltec Empire that can be identified, there was some sort of inter-regional flow of ideas throughout Mesoamerica that archaeologists have named Toltec. Its possible, perhaps likely, that much of that flow of ideas came about as a byproduct of the establishment of inter-regional trade networks, trade networks including such materials as obsidian and salt which were established by the 4th century CE (and probably much earlier) but really kicked into gear after the fall of Teotihuacan in 750 CE. So, the word Toltec should be removed from the word empire, certainly: and perhaps the best way to look at the concept is as a Toltec ideal, an art style, philosophy and form of government that acted as the exemplary center of all that was perfect and longed for by the Aztecs, an ideal echoed at other sites and cultures throughout Mesoamerica. Selected Sources Berdan, Frances F. Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.  Iverson, Shannon Dugan. The Enduring Toltecs: History and Truth During the Aztec-to-Colonial Transition at Tula, Hidalgo. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 24.1 (2017): 90–116. Print.Kowalski, Jeff Karl, and Cynthia Kristan-Graham, eds. Twin Tollans: Chichà ©n Itzà ¡, Tula and the Epiclassic to Early Postclassic Mesoamerican World. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2011.  Ringle, William M., Tomas Gallareta Negron, and George J. Bey. The Return of Quetzalcoatl: Evidence for the Spread of a World Religion During the Epiclassic Period. Ancient Mesoamerica 9 (1998): 183-–232.  Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs. 3rd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.  ---. Toltec Empire. The Encyclopedia of Empire. Ed. MacKenzie, John M. London: John Wiley Sons, Ltd., 2016.