Health Needs Of A Child Case Study Social Work Essay

Transgender Students and the Learning Process Essay -- Essays Papers

Transgender Students and the Learning Process Presentation Character is a key factor of a person in the general public. Personality regularly is slanted in spite of the explanatory articulation: â€Å"You are who you are.† However, ordinarily a general public unwittingly endeavors to form the characters of people into homogenous items. The significant thing isn't to let yourself prejudge people or demonstrations of individuals since this makes a supposition that brings a shame against the person. Transgender individuals face the troublesome test of being acknowledged into society since they either don't fit a customary sexual orientation task to their sex, or they are not ready to indicate a specific sex perceived by society. The legal dispute that I will use to investigate transgender character is Doe v. Yunits. The instance of Pat Doe v. John Yunits includes a youthful, transgender understudy trained by school specialists. The school considers to be an expert on a person’s dress clothing while at the same time going to class. The court experiences a progression of derivations testing the opportunity of articulation, freedom in appearance, and the utilization of sex-class segregation. While the decision of the case brings consciousness of the presence of transgendered individuals, it is defamed by a predominant culture whose premise of the lawful framework ensures prohibited sexual orientation characters as opposed to the assurance of opportunity of picking different personalities. Furthermore, the court regarded that Pat Doe has an ailment that expects her to wear women’s pieces of clothing. The ailment called Gender Identity Disorder says a lot about how society treats unrecognized contrasts with regards to diagnosing a sexual orientation articulation. The data of the legal dispute permits you to get em... ...aggy pants and a white-blender is day he neglects to maintain her actual sexual orientation personality. Judith Butler in Stein’s article best portrays this as â€Å"[D]rawing upon the strange acts of drag, cross-dressing, and butch-femme, she [Butler] builds up an origination of sexual orientation as execution, and of sex spoofs as incendiary acts†(Stein 181). My inquiry that comes out of strange examination and the Doe v. Yunits, Why do individuals need to play out a sexual orientation act? Is it to declare a sort of sexuality, sexual direction, as well as rather generalized one? Is a transgender individual better to play out a sexual orientation act that is comprehended? On the off chance that the transgender individual plays out a demonstration in spite of sexual orientation they pick, is the individual a faker? Is my sexual orientation controlling me or I am assuming responsibility for my sex? I trust have endeavored to shake your contemplations and discernments , and maybe even fuck with your sexual orientation.

Conflict Resolution Skills for Healthy Relationships

Conflict Resolution Skills for Healthy Relationships Relationships Spouses & Partners Print Conflict Resolution Skills for Healthy Relationships By Elizabeth Scott, MS twitter Elizabeth Scott, MS, is a wellness coach specializing in stress management and quality of life, and the author of 8 Keys to Stress Management. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Scott, MS Updated on June 11, 2019 ONOKY - Fabrice Lerouge / Brand X Pictures / Getty Images More in Relationships Spouses & Partners Marital Problems LGBTQ Violence and Abuse Conflict is a predictable part of virtually all relationships. It can also be a significant source of stress.  Therefore, with most conflicts, it’s important to find a resolution. This seems like a statement of the obvious, but many people suppress their anger or just ‘go along to get along. Some think that by addressing a conflict, they are creating one, and simply keep quiet when upset.?? Unfortunately, this isn’t a healthy long-term strategy. Unresolved conflict can lead to resentment and additional unresolved conflict in the relationship.?? Even more important, ongoing conflict can actually have a negative impact on your health and longevity.?? Unfortunately, resolving conflict can be tricky as well. Handled improperly, attempts at conflict resolution can actually make the conflict worse.?? For example, researcher John Gottman and his colleagues studied the way couples fight, and can actually predict which couples will go on to divorce by observing their conflict resolution skillsâ€"or lack thereof.?? (Hint: Couples who are constantly criticizing their partner’s character, or shutting down during arguments rather than working through conflict in a proactive, respectful way, should watch out.) For those who weren’t born into a family where perfect conflict resolution skills were modeled on a daily basis (andâ€"let’s face itâ€"how many of us were?), here are some guidelines to make conflict resolution more simple and less stressful. Get in Touch With Your Feelings An important component of conflict resolution involves only youâ€"knowing how you feel and why you feel that way.?? It may seem that your feelings should already be obvious to you, but this isn’t always the case. Sometimes you feel angry or resentful, but don’t know why. Other times, you feel that the other person isn’t doing what they ‘should,’ but you aren’t aware of exactly what you want from them, or if it’s even reasonable. Journaling can be an effective way to get in touch with your own feelings, thoughts, and expectations so you are better able to communicate them to the other person.?? Sometimes this process brings up some pretty heavy issues, and psychotherapy can be helpful. Using Journaling Hone Your Listening Skills When it comes to effective conflict resolution, how effectively we listen is at least as important as how effectively we express ourselves.?? It’s vital to understand the other person’s perspective, rather than just our own if we are to come to a resolution. In fact, just helping the other person feel heard and understood can sometimes go a long way toward the resolution of a conflict. Good listening also helps for you to be able to bridge the gap between the two of you, understand where the disconnect lies, etc.?? Unfortunately, active listening is a skill that not everybody knows, and it’s common for people to think they’re listening, while in their heads they’re actually formulating their next response, thinking to themselves how wrong the other person is, or doing things other than trying to understand the other person’s perspective. It’s also common to be so defensive and entrenched in your own perspective that you literally can’t hear the other person’s point of view.?? How to Strengthen Your Listening Skills Practice Assertive Communication Communicating your feelings and needs clearly is also an important aspect of conflict resolution.?? As you probably know, saying the wrong thing can be like throwing fuel on a fire, and make a conflict worse. The important thing to remember is to say what’s on your mind in a way that is clear and assertive, without being aggressive or putting the other person on the defensive. One effective conflict resolution strategy is to put things in terms of how you feel rather than what you think the other person is doing wrong, using ‘I feel’ statements. 5 Simple Steps to Assertive Communication Seek a Solution Once you understand the other person’s perspective, and they understand yours, it’s time to find a resolution to the conflictâ€"a solution you both can live with.?? Sometimes a simple and obvious answer comes up once both parties understand the other person’s perspective. In cases where the conflict was based on a misunderstanding or a lack of insight to the other’s point of view, a simple apology can work wonders, and an open discussion can bring people closer together. Other times, there is a little more work required. In cases where there’s a conflict about an issue and both people don’t agree, you have a few options: Sometimes you can agree to disagree, other times you can find a compromise or middle ground, and in other cases the person who feels more strongly about an issue may get their way, with the understanding that they will concede the next time. The important thing is to come to a place of understanding and try to work things out in a way that’s respectful to all involved.?? Know When It’s Not Working Because of the toll that ongoing conflict can exact from a person, sometimes it’s advisable to put some distance in the relationship or cut ties completely.?? In cases of abuse, simple conflict resolution techniques can only take you so far, and personal safety needs to take priority. When dealing with difficult family members, on the other hand, adding a few boundaries and accepting the other person’s limitations in the relationship can bring some peace. In friendships that are unsupportive or characterized by ongoing conflict, letting go may be a great source of stress relief.?? Only you can decide if a relationship can be improved, or should be let go. The 6 Best Online Marriage Counseling Programs

Analysis Of Ronald Reagans Challenger Addres - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 613 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/07/03 Category People Essay Level High school Tags: Ronald Reagan Essay Did you like this example? On January 28th, 1986, the Challenger exploded after launching with delays just days before. Media coverage of the mission was extreme because of Christa McAuliffe, who was going to be the first school teacher to go on a mission to space. Many people around the globe witnessed the destruction of the space shuttle on tv. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Analysis Of Ronald Reagans Challenger Addres" essay for you Create order This tragedy called for President Ronald Reagan to address the issue. Through the rhetorical arrangement and style of his speech, Reagan expressed condolences to people who were affected by the event. The way the address was arranged allowed him to acknowledge what happened and advocate for future expansion into space. Reagan began his speech by empathizing with the pain that people are feeling: Nancy and I are pained to the core by the tragedy of the shuttle Challenger. We know we share this pain with all of the people of our country. This is truly a national loss. (see para 1). In this statement, he addresses his wife to deliver relatable speech. He then expands his viewpoint to all Americans. By delivering the speech in this way, he shows himself as a person that can empathize and relate to his fellow man. After this, the speechs arrangement follows along a path to explain to the public how things like this can happen. Although painful, disasters were normal and almost usual during dangerous rocket launches Another sentence states that, For the families of the seven, we cannot bear, as you do the full impact of this tragedy (see para 4). He puts himself at the same level as family to show that his sympathy is just as heartfelt as the family of the seven. He goes on to talk about how the astronauts died a courageous death while doing something they loved; they died as pioneers. The wording he used when he expressed his feelings caused him to sound empathetic. Afterwards, he addresses the youth that were watching; And I want to say something to the schoolchildren of America who were watching the live coverage of the shuttles take-off (see para 6). He acknowledges them because younger people are the next-generation of the U.S. Also by addressing the children, Reagan creates a sense of relaxation to the audience.Reagan assures everyone listening and brings them into his main argument, advocating for future space exploration: Well continue our quest in space. There will be more shuttle flights and more shuttle crews and, yes, more volunteers, more civilians, more teachers in space. Nothing ends here; our hopes and our journeys continue. (see para 9). The president delivered his speech while in the Oval Office and with a calm and solemn speech pattern. These aspects helped to lend Reagan credibility as a leader and an empathetic person.The main point of his message was to deliver condolences to the people who were deeply affected by the accident and to remind us that this is just part of the process of exploration, and to push for future space quest. He supported this claim when he said, Well continue our quest in space. And also when Reagan says, Nothing ends here; our hopes and our journeys continue. He goes on to talk about the connection between Sir Francis Drake and the astronauts, to show that what they do is very important to discovery and even though it led to their death, was not in vain. It was a stepping stone for future exploration. Overall, throughout his whole speech he is empathizing with those affected by this event, while still getting his main message across. He indicates that we are hurt because of the loss but, we will move on from this event and look on toward the future.

Dna Analysis And Identification Of Missing Bodies Essay

Summer Assignment Topic :- DNA Testing On Putrefied Bodies Project Objective :- DNA Analysis and identification of Missing Bodies Methodology:- Review Of Literature And Important Case Studies. By:- Zoya Kalim B.Sc Forensic Science (Group 1) Year 2013-2016 What is Putrefaction? Putrefaction is one of the seven stages in the decomposition of the body of a dead animal or human. It is defined as the decomposition of proteins in a process that results in the eventual breakdown of cohesion between tissues and the liquefaction of most organs. It can also be defined as progressive loss of skin and soft tissues. Body flattens as the decomposition gasses escape. In terms of thermodynamics, all organic tissue is a stored source of chemical energy and when not maintained by the constant biochemical efforts of the living organism it will break down into simpler products. The breakdown of proteins in a decomposing carcass is a spontaneous process but one that is accelerated as the anaerobic microorganisms, already present in the animal s digestive tract when it was alive, consume and digest the proteins that comprise the creature s cells. Due to the digestion of the cells and the protein, the tissues of the body are left in a weakened state. Proteins are broken down into smaller components and these are excreted by the bacteria. The excreted components, which include gases andShow MoreRelatedTsunami : A Disaster Victim Identification1491 Words   |  6 Pages(Thais: 1,972; foreign nationals from at least 36 countries: 2,248; and 1,175 of unknown nationality) and 2,817 were missing (Thais: 1,924).3,6,7 The international disaster victim identific ation (DVI) led by the Royal Thai Police in Phuket, Thailand in response to the Boxing Day tsunami was one of the largest and most complex in DVI history. Referred to as the Thai Tsunami Victim Identification (TTVI) operation, the group comprised a multinational, multiagency, and multidisciplinary team. Province DeathsRead MoreThe Skeleton Owner s Gender, Ethnicity, Height, And Age1697 Words   |  7 Pagesgeneral age however the standards stopped at the age of 20; the bone doesn’t shift much past that unless its osteoporosis or something similar. FURTHER ANALYSIS Facial reconstruction is used as a last resort to identify remains by placing clay atop the skeleton in hopes of reconstructing what that person may look like to get a possible identification. They would gather average tissue thickness from the ethnicity, gender, and age (children, teens, and adults) and apply it to the skull according to theRead MoreThe Importance Of DPAA1250 Words   |  5 PagesVietnam cannot come before we have achieved the fullest possible accounting of those missing in action. Why keep searching? The answer is simple. You never leave a fallen American behind. 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How These Bible Verses Affect Me Free Essays

The Bible is a written collection of scriptures with divine inspiration to be lead and guided by the Holy Spirit. I can say that these Sacred Scriptures of God are representation of our life. â€Å"Death and life are In the power of the tongue: and they that love It shall eat the fruit thereof. We will write a custom essay sample on How These Bible Verses Affect Me or any similar topic only for you Order Now † Proverbs 18:21 Every word that comes out from our mouth is powerful enough to make an impact on our life. In my own experience, I have witnessed the agony and the pain that pinches my heart every time others utter vile words without considering my feelings. Deep inside, dejection and sadness swallow up my entire being alive. Sure, jokes are funny, but there are times that they have completely crossed the line. From then on, I told myself, ‘l must stand up and fight for myself. ‘ That is why every time see people bullied by others; I was like glaring at my own reflection. I know what they feel. Ergo, I should help and reach out my hand for them. Whilst on the other hand, I realized that I myself too should also be mindful and watchful of the words I say, for my actions, words, and deeds will come back to me. They will reflect on my personality and will describe who I really am. As stated In the Golden Rule: â€Å"Do not do unto other hat you don’t want others do unto you†. â€Å"For I am sure that neither death nor life, nor angels nor rulers, nor things present nor things to come, nor powers, nor height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God in Christ Jesus our Lord. † Romans 8:38-39 As I venture my Journey, my life, obstacles keep on blocking my way. As I step farther, hurdles and trials hinder me from going to the right path. Along my way, I may often trip and even fall flat onto the ground; but I never give up, hence continuing what I ought to be. Life Is a coin with its two sides–pleasure and pain. Only one can become visible at a time. However, remember, the other side has its turn. Problems may arouse, as well as sorrow and frustration may ramp on your elite. On the other hand, I believe that even In the darkest nights of my life, there Is always the brighter side that will help me seek for hope and give me the strength to persevere and overcome all of these. Nevertheless, they would not be possible without the presence of the love of God in Jesus Christ, our Lord. His unconditional love gives me strength, wisdom, hope, and the spirit to surpass all these hindrances that comes beneath me. My elite, bounded by in his spirit, is always present in our midst, thus, will never separate me from Him. He is the savior that will guide and save me from being lost. These two verses, analogous to what I experienced and learned, gave a huge impact in my life. I should respect the people around me and should treat each other equally. If you ask me, one should never hurt others; and never say words that will offend them. God is always there for me, guiding, helping and never leaving my side. No one can separate me from God, for being with Him is my destiny and that will be my way towards salvation. How to cite How These Bible Verses Affect Me, Papers

Social Control and the Salem Witch Trials Research Paper Example

Social Control and the Salem Witch Trials Paper In life, individuals form groups to obtain a desired good more effectively. This good typically cannot be produced individually, and this particular goods availability is generally limited outside the group. Thus, it seems that it is in an individuals best interest to remain a part of this group and work effectively with other members to produce their desired collective good. However, when members are faced with two opposing courses of action, one which will benefit their individual end and the other that will benefit the group collectively, there are always group members that will choose to pursue the individual end. Using the factors that affect group solidarity it is possible to explain why deviants sometimes pursue their own individual self-interest, and conversely, what causes some latent deviants to remain reputable group members committed to the solidarity of the group. In his book Principles of Group Solidarity, Michael Hechter lists several factors that effect group solidarity. According to Hechter, group solidarity can be defined as each group members willingness to contribute to the interest of the entire group, or the public. Within the group, solidarity varies for two main reasons; the extensiveness of each individuals obligations, and each individuals compliance with their obligations. Dissecting each of these reasons Hechter concludes that an individuals extensiveness of their group obligations will increase when each group member is dependent on one another to produce their desired good. Also, an individuals compliance with their group obligations will increase when the group is effectively monitored, and when sanctions are properly levied. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Control and the Salem Witch Trials specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Social Control and the Salem Witch Trials specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Social Control and the Salem Witch Trials specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Thus, according to Hechter, a group will exhibit solidarity when the members are interdependent on one another to produce their desired good, and an appropriate system of monitoring exists that yields sanctions to deviants. Nevertheless, group solidarity is only as strong as the group member most willing to deviate from their obligations to the group and pursue their own self-interest. Hechter explains that the rational egoist will choose the course of action that, given the information available to them and their ability to process it, they think will produce maximum utility. (Hechter, 30) If the rational egoist chooses to pursue an individual end, rather than the collective interest of the group, this decision could lead to the eventual downfall of the group. Given this account, one would be led to believe that at any time rational group members would deviate from the group in order to satisfy their own self-interests. But as we are about to see, the factors outlined earlier exist to prevent latent deviants from pursuing their individual end. Furthermore, there are some cases when it truly is in the best interest of the individual to pursue the end that will benefit the group collectively, because in turn they will benefit greater from that course of action. We will now look at several examples to show what factors influence the solidarity of a group. Initially, lets consider a rotating credit association, in which a group of individuals contribute to a common fund that is held by each individual for a certain length of time. In order to form such an organization, group solidarity must exist. Each member of the group must feel a sense of dependence on the other members to comply with their obligation to regularly contribute to the fund. Ordinarily, members of a rotating credit association know a great deal about each other; where each member lives, what each member does for a living, etc. Therefore, a high degree of visibility exists among the members, which serves to strengthen the efforts to monitor the group and sanction deviants. In addition, the notion of reputation in the group plays an important role; the individual serves to protect their familys good name by acting in a reputable manner. Yet, there always exists the risk that an individual (a rational egoist) will run off with the fund while it is their turn in the rotation to hold the money, thereby causing the group to collapse and leaving the others without access to credit. In this case, one can reason that deviation is less likely because each member of the group is highly interdependent on one another. Also, unless the deviant planned on completely disappearing from society he would have a hard time making future business transactions. Word of the deviants action would spread making it very unlikely for him to get involved with another credit association or business venture. Thus, remaining in good standing with the rotating credit association is in the best interest of the individual. Now lets turn to another example, insurance groups. We will focus on two such organizations, British friendly societies and American fraternal ethnic associations. In essence these groups were the first formalized insurance funds. Their main purpose was to offer payments to their members in the event of sickness, death, disability, a bad crop, or temporary layoff. In addition to their role as benefactors the insurance groups provided their members with other collective goods. The British friendly societies fostered a social environment in which their members would be able to have a release from their daily routine. The groups often staged their meetings in taverns, and held summer picnics and other such events for the members families. Similarly, the American fraternal ethnic associations provided a means for recent immigrants to stay in tune with their native culture through music, dance, and sporting events. Also, the ethnic associations offered educational and linguistic resources to assist their members with assimilating into their new environment in America. As one can see the benefits of being a part of an insurance group were immense. However, keeping the insurance fund solvent was an equally immense undertaking. There were myriad problems the fund could encounter. If everyone in the insurance group was about the same age depletion of the fund would occur at or around the same time period. Thus, the insurance group had to maintain a steady flow of new entrants to guard against future collapse. If one or a few individuals had sole control over the insurance fund, fraudulent members could embezzle and figure that nobody will notice. Thus, selection of trustworthy and upright officers was important in order to maintain the fund and safeguard against improper distribution. These two problems represent issues that required monitoring, and also sanctions if the situation warranted such action. In order for group solidarity to exist group members had to take a proactive role in the decision making process of issuing insurance benefits. Deviants could easily file a false claim, steal money from the fund, demand more money than they should, or even exhibit more careless behavior than they otherwise would without insurance (a phenomenon known as moral hazard). Yet, generally speaking, most insurance group members complied with their obligation to regularly contribute and enabled the insurance fund to persist. Using the examples drawn from Hechters book in the form of rotating credit associations and insurance groups one can distinguish what factors affect some deviants to pursue their own individual self-interest. If an individual in a group feels as though the extensiveness of their obligations is too comprehensive they will no longer comply with the groups rules. The deviant may decide to free-ride, in which he collects the groups collective good without contributing. The deviant may leave himself open for an unfavorable response from other group members, which will eventually result in sanctions or removal from the group. The deviant may also decide to steal, or embezzle from the group, thereby solidifying their expulsion. The deviant may even decide to start a rival or competing group with more favorable conditions. Conversely, other factors cause individuals to remain reputable group members committed to the solidarity of the group. Basing this on rational choice theory it may be the case that an individual group members self-interest parallels the collective interest of the group. In this situation the individual is acting as a rational egoist in remaining aligned with the goals of the group. Pursuing the collective interest of the group maximizes the individuals utility. Undoubtedly, this is the major reason individuals form groups in the first place, to collectively obtain a desired good more effectively. Additionally, other factors including maintaining a good reputation in the community, and fear of sanctions, guide some latent deviants to pursue the collective interest of the group. They are better off as part the group. Going against the group will only serve to subject these individuals to undue hardship and ill-feelings from people whom they share common interests with. However, without some sort of social control or peer pressure, it is likely to assume that more deviation from the pursuit of the collective good would exist. This notion is exhibited through Arthur Millers portrayal of the Salem witch trials in the movie The Crucible. For our analysis we will consider Salem, Massachusetts, a community that exhibited group solidarity. The entire town worked together to maintain a certain standard of living for their families. Salem had a carpenter, blacksmith, minister, sheriff, several farmers, and servants, all who worked together to produce a collective good for the community; a comfortable standard of living. Despite the groups interdependence on one another, the system began to fall apart in the face of a crisis. When members of the community were faced with two opposing courses of action regarding communication with the devil, some chose to pursue their individual end, while others chose to pursue the course of action that benefited the group collectively. The predominant reason that allowed such a large faction to pursue their individual end revolves around the courts decision to believe Abigail Williams and her crew. By and large, these girls did not contribute to the welfare of the community; they acted as free-riders. For the girls, non-compliance with the groups obligations was easy. They were rarely monitored, and stringent sanctions could result in their families acquiring a reputation for producing deviants. Thus, most conflicts were pushed under the table or out of sight, to save face in the community. Furthermore, even the court failed to follow proper procedure. The trial consisted of the accused either agreeing to prior communication with the devil, or denying the accusation and facing the consequence of death. There was no middle ground, no logical though process, the girls had created hysteria in Salem. Several group members were hung based on the whimsical testimony of a group of deviants. Not surprisingly, Abigail and the girls initially picked on the group members with the lowest levels of status in the community including, beggars and peasants. By establishing their accusations on these unfavorable group members the girls were able to create a snowball effect, in which more and more people began to believe that certain members did in fact participate in communication with the devil. Before too long the girls were in too deep to ever admit guilt. In turn, they created their own group, with their own interdependence rested solely on the premise of not getting caught. At this point a traitor from within would result in death for them all. When Mary Warren, under the supervision of John Proctor, attempted to rectify the girls wrongs, Abigail led a flamboyant reprisal which made Mary Warren look like she had lost her mind. Eventually, once Abigail realized these trials could not persist indefinitely she decided to flee Salem and deviate from yet another group. During her rampage in Salem, Abigails relentless pursuit of her own individual end transformed the culture of the community. While Abigail and her crew of deviants broke down the community, others including John Proctor, and Reverend Hale gave their all to pursue the collective end most beneficial to the solidarity of the group. If we look back on Hechters factors that affect group solidarity (the extensiveness of each individuals obligations, and each individuals compliance with their obligations), we can see why these individuals fostered the collective interest of the group. Proctor, despite his relations with Abigail, represented the community member who looked out for the well-being of his group members. Proctor understood that interdependence of the group, and maintaining a good reputation for his family, would benefit the community and his family in the long run. When faced with the ultimate question, death with dignity or life with disgrace, Proctor chose the course of action that would eliminate these problems for Salem in the future. He took the ultimate sacrifice for the good of the community. Similar to Proctors course of action, Reverend Hale, realized that something must be done to suppress the deviants from creating any further problems. Having prior experience in uncovering witchcraft, Reverend Hale was initially called in to assess the situation and if the need existed, eradicate the devil from Salem. Unexpectedly, once he had a chance to fully analyze the situation it became clear that the girls who were allegedly suffering from witchcraft were the source of the problem. In an effort to comply with his obligations to Salem, Reverend Hale urged Judge Danforth to see beyond the girls deviant actions. He knew John Proctor was telling the truth, he knew Abigail was lying when she alleged Elizabeth Proctors spirit stabbed a needle in her abdomen, he knew the situation in Salem was out of control. Individuals were being put to death and Reverend Hale was trying his hardest to correct the situation. Relating John Proctors and Reverend Hales actions to Hechters reasoning, one would conclude that as the Salem witch trials progressed the extensiveness of their obligations to the community increased. These two men realized that the welfare of the community rested on their shoulders. In order for Salem to remain solvent in the years to come, free from the grips of the deviants who preached witchcraft, John Proctor needed to stand up against Judge Danforth and set an example. To John Proctor, his strong personal ties within the group, the cost of moving away from Salem, and the value he placed on his familys good name, were stronger than life itself. To Reverend Hale, the pursuit to benefit the collective welfare of Salem, his original mission, was of the utmost importance. As we have now seen through several examples, group solidarity varies for two main reasons; the extensiveness of each individuals obligations, and each individuals compliance with their obligations. When group members are faced with two opposing courses of action, one which will benefit their individual end and the other that will benefit the group collectively, the individual subliminally considers each variant and chooses a course of action. Based on factors including, the interdependence of the group, the visibility of each group member, the probability of getting caught (monitoring), and the probability of facing a sanction, the rational egoist choose[s] the course of action that they think will produce maximum utility. (Hechter, 30) Hence, in each group there exist members who will always be more inclined to deviate than others. The degrees to which these factors are employed within the group determine the actual level of deviation from the pursuit of the collective interest of the group. I am particularly happy with the way that I make sure each topic/example relates to the thesis and gives examples to substantiate the claim. As far as Im concerned the paper flows well from one thought to another. I didnt necessarily have any trouble writing the paper, although there were times when I did not think that I would be able to reach about 9 pages. Based on my outline, I figured Id have to cut down, or simplify the paper, but that proved not to be the case.

9 causas para perder la ciudadanía de Estados Unidos

9 causas para perder la ciudadanà ­a de Estados Unidos Los ciudadanos de los Estados Unidos pueden perder su condicià ³n de estadounidenses si realizan determinadas acciones que llevan aparejada como consecuencia la pà ©rdida de la nacionalidad. Esto aplica tanto a los ciudadanos que adquirieron su condicià ³n en el momento del nacimiento como a los que la obtuvieron posteriormente, incluido el trmite que se conoce como naturalizacià ³n, por el que los residentes permanentes legales se convierten en ciudadanos. Puntos clave: pà ©rdida de la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense Son raros los casos de retirada de la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense. La ley tiene previstos nueve casos en los que puede darse pero todos ellos requieren que se trate de un acto voluntario y consciente.Una situacià ³n diferente son los casos de desnaturalizacià ³n por fraude, que se han incrementado en los à ºltimos aà ±os. Se est quitando la ciudadanà ­a a personas que mintieron en las aplicaciones de naturalizacià ³n, obtencià ³n de la tarjeta de residencia o las que cometieron un delito antes de naturalizarse y no revelaron este problema en la aplicacià ³n. 9 acciones que, en teorà ­a, podrà ­an provocar la pà ©rdida de la ciudadanà ­a de los Estados Unidos Segà ºn la Seccià ³n 359 de la Ley de Inmigracià ³n y Nacionalidad (INA, por sus siglas en inglà ©s), en la actualidad un estadounidense solamente podrà ­a verse privado de su ciudadanà ­a cuando se dan una de las circunstancias siguientes: Prestar juramento o declaracià ³n formal  de lealtad a otro paà ­s despuà ©s de cumplir los 18 aà ±os.Obtener la nacionalidad de otro paà ­s de forma voluntaria y por peticià ³n propia despuà ©s de haber cumplido los 18 aà ±os de edad.  Servir en cualquier categorà ­a en un Ejà ©rcito extranjero hostil hacia Estados UnidosServir como oficial comisionado o no comisionado en el Ejà ©rcito de otro paà ­sServir como soldado en un Ejà ©rcito no hostil hacia Estados UnidosTrabajar para un gobierno extranjero despuà ©s de cumplir los 18 aà ±os Renunciar voluntaria y formalmente a la ciudadanà ­a como hicieron estos 10 famosos. Sentencia firme condenatoria por traicià ³n a los Estados UnidosCondena firme por intentar derrocar el gobierno de los Estados Unidos En el caso de trabajar para gobierno extranjero es necesario que adems, se dà © una de las siguientes circunstancias: poseer tambià ©n la nacionalidad del paà ­s de dicho gobierno , es decir, debe darse un caso de doble nacionalidad prestar algà ºn tipo de juramento o promesa como condicià ³n para acceder a ese puesto de trabajo. Por otro lado, en el caso de renuncia voluntaria a la nacionalidad estadounidense, si se est fuera de los Estados Unidos la declaracià ³n debe hacerse en una embajada o consulado de USA. Por el contrario, si la persona que desea renunciar se encuentra dentro del paà ­s deber contactar con el Departamento de Seguridad Interna. Sin embargo, no siempre que se produzca uno de estos hechos se pierde la nacionalidad. Ya que por ley es necesario que concurran obligatoriamente dos requisitos siguientes: que el acto sea voluntarioque el acto se realice con la intencià ³n de abandonar la condicià ³n de ciudadano. Y es que en  Afroyim v. Rusk, una sentencia de  1967 la Corte Suprema reconoce que un ciudadano americano tiene un derecho constitucional a permanecer siendo ciudadano, a menos que voluntariamente renuncie a la nacionalidad. Y en 1980 con la sentencia  Vance v. Terrace,  la Corte establecià ³ que tal renuncia se puede hacer mediante una declaracià ³n o mediante accià ³n. Es fcil determinar que el acto es voluntario. Lo que no es tan claro es determinar cundo existe la intencià ³n de realmente dejar de ser estadounidense. Para esto aplica la norma de las presunciones y a continuacià ³n se explica cà ³mo se debe entender. Cundo el gobierno de EE.UU. entiende que hay intencià ³n de renunciar a la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense Adems, de obviamente, cuando se renuncia formalmente a la ciudadanà ­a, se pierde, las autoridades consideran que hay intencià ³n de dejar de ser estadounidense cuando: Se sirve en cualquier posicià ³n en un Ejà ©rcito en hostilidades contra los Estados UnidosCuando hay una condena por traicià ³n o por intentar derrocar al gobiernoCuando se sirve a un gobierno extranjero en una posicià ³n polà ­tica En estos tres casos, los oficiales consulares investigarn  si efectivamente se da la intencià ³n de abandonar la ciudadanà ­a, como en principio se presume. Y en base a dicha investigacià ³n, resolvern. Cundo el gobierno entiende que NO hay intencià ³n de renunciar Existe una premisa administrativa que considera que se tiene la intencià ³n de seguir siendo estadounidense en todos los dems casos no previstos en el caso anterior. Es decir, cuando se presta alianza a otro paà ­s, se adquiere su nacionalidad, se presta servicio en un Ejà ©rcito extranjero no hostil o se acepta un trabajo para otro gobierno a nivel no polà ­tico.   La persona que realiza cualquiera de las cuatro actividades arriba mencionadas no necesita pedir permiso antes de hacerlas ni tampoco notificar a ninguna autoridad americana su intencià ³n de seguir siendo estadounidense, ya que eso es lo que se presume. Pero es posible que cuando pida la renovacià ³n del pasaporte americano o solicite registrarse para votar o cualquier otra actividad reservada a ciudadanos un oficial consular le pregunte si al realizar una de las cuatro acciones antes seà ±aladas deseaba renunciar a la nacionalidad estadounidense. Bastar con contestar â€Å"no† para seguir siendo americano. Sin embargo, en el pasado no era asà ­ y muchos ciudadanos perdieron su nacionalidad. En estos casos podrà ­a ser posible recuperarla. Casos de desnaturalizacià ³n por fraude Entre 1990 y 2017 hubo un total de 305 desnaturalizaciones, es decir, 11 casos por aà ±o en los que se le quità ³ la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense a personas que la habà ­an adquirido por medio de la naturalizacià ³n. Pero desde ese aà ±o las desnaturalizaciones han incrementado y el gobierno reconoce que en la actualidad hay aproximadamente unos 2.500 casos siendo investigados. Adems, en el presupuesto del aà ±o fiscal 2019 hay destinados a ICE 207 millones para investigar posibles casos de desnaturalizacià ³n y que le permiten contratar a abogados e investigadores para intentar encontrar casos en los que el ciudadano naturalizado cometià ³ fraude, es decir, mintià ³, en el proceso de naturalizacià ³n u obtencià ³n de la green card. Adems, se buscan particularmente casos en los que el ahora ciudadano cometià ³ alguna felonà ­a antes de adquirir la ciudadanà ­a y no lo reportà ³. Especialmente, los investigadores estn interesados en los casos de personas que recibieron una orden de deportacià ³n pero se quedaron en el paà ­s y, posteriormente, adquirieron la ciudadanà ­a bajo otro nombre. Esto es posible porque se estn investigando huellas digitales de los aà ±os 90 y anteriores que no estaban digitalizadas y se estn comparando con los expedientes de naturalizacià ³n. Consecuencias de la pà ©rdida de la ciudadanà ­a  de EE.UU. Se dejan de tener todos los privilegios, derechos y libertades propios de ser estadounidense Adems, a partir de ese momento se deber solicitar una visa para entrar a Estados Unidos, a menos que la persona sea titular de un pasaporte que le permita entrar como turista bajo el Programa de Exencià ³n de Visas. Si careciese de otro pasaporte, la persona que voluntariamente deja de ser estadounidense se considera que es aptrida y carece de la proteccià ³n de ningà ºn estado. En todo caso, la renuncia no evitar que esa persona sea sometida a juicio por posibles delitos que haya cometido en EE.UU.. Asimismo, continà ºa estando obligada a hacer frente a las obligaciones financieras que haya contraà ­do en EE.UU. y a las militares, si las tuviera. Por à ºltimo, dejar de ser americano no supone el fin automtico de la relacià ³n con los impuestos americanos, ya que habr que seguir cumpliendo esta obligacià ³n por 10 aà ±os. Se aconseja consultar con el IRS para asegurarse de cules son las obligaciones pendientes en materia de tasas. La renuncia a la nacionalidad americana es definitiva. Es decir, una vez realizada no hay vuelta atrs. La à ºnica excepcià ³n es plantear una demanda administrativa o judicial y ganarla. Y en el caso de las personas que dejaron de ser americanas motu proprio cuando eran menores de edad, debern notificar al Departamento de Estado que desean volver a ser estadounidenses dentro de los seis meses siguientes a haber cumplido los 18 aà ±os. Como es un acto de grandes consecuencias, antes de llevarlo a cabo es recomendable consular sobre el proceso para entender todos sus aspectos. Las dudas se atienden en la Oficina de Asuntos Consulares del DoS en Washington, llamando al 1-202-736-9110 o enviando un correo electrà ³nico a ASKPRIstate.gov Derechos y obligaciones de los estadounidenses en el exterior Los ciudadanos tienen obligacià ³n de pagar impuestos, aunque residan habitualmente en otro paà ­s. Pero tambià ©n tienen derechos, como en determinados casos transmitir la ciudadanà ­a a sus hijos, recibir el pago del cheque del seguro social o votar en las elecciones para Presidente registrndose en el à ºltimo estado en el que se residià ³. Si han formado una familia y desean regresar a Estados Unidos, podrn solicitar los papeles por matrimonio para su cà ³nyuge, si bien pueden existir obstculos que deben ser tenidos en cuenta. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

Frequencies and Relative Frequencies in Histograms

Frequencies and Relative Frequencies in Histograms In the construction of a histogram, there are several steps that we must undertake before we actually draw our graph. After setting up the classes that we will use, we assign each of our data values to one of these classes then  count the number of data values that fall into each class and draw the heights of the bars. These heights can be determined by two different ways that are interrelated: frequency or relative frequency. The frequency of a class is the count of how many data values fall into a certain class wherein classes with greater frequencies have higher bars and classes with lesser frequencies have lower bars. On the other hand, relative frequency requires one additional step as it is the measure of what proportion or percent of the data values fall into a particular class. A straightforward calculation determines the relative frequency from the frequency by adding up all the classes frequencies and dividing the count by each class by the sum of these frequencies. The Difference Between Frequency and Relative Frequency To see the difference between frequency and relative frequency we will consider the following example. Suppose we are looking at the history grades of students in 10th grade and have the classes corresponding to letter grades: A, B, C, D, F. The number of each of these grades gives us a frequency for each class: 7 students with an F9 students with a D18 students with a C12 students with a B4 students with an A To determine the relative frequency for each class we first add the total number of data points: 7 9 18 12 4 50. Next we, divide each frequency by this sum 50. 0.14 14% students with an F0.18 18% students with a D0.36 36% students with a C0.24 24% students with a B0.08 8% students with an A The initial data set above with the number of students who fall into each class (letter grade) would be indicative of the frequency while the percentage in the second data set represents the relative frequency of these grades. An easy way to define the difference between frequency and relative frequency is that frequency relies on the actual values of each class in a statistical data set while relative frequency compares these individual values to the overall totals of all classes concerned in a data set. Histograms Either frequencies or relative frequencies can be used for a histogram. Although the numbers along the vertical axis will be different, the overall shape of the histogram will remain unchanged. This is because the heights relative to each other are the same whether we are using frequencies or relative frequencies. Relative frequency histograms are important because the heights can be interpreted as probabilities. These probability histograms provide a graphical display of a probability distribution, which can be used to determine the likelihood of certain results to occur within a given population. Histograms are useful tools to quickly observe trends in populations in order for statisticians, lawmakers, and community organizers alike to be able to determine the best course of action to affect the most people in a given population.

Hart-Devlin Debate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Hart-Devlin Debate - Essay Example However, the law is not against the private lives of people and the activities they undertake in private. Therefore, a law cannot be imposed that interferes with the private lives of people. The report by the committee sparked a reaction from Patrick Devlin. Devlin in his discussion on â€Å"the enforcement of morals† argued that criminal law is not only meant to protect individuals but the entire society. Therefore, if people are engaged in activities that are against the society norms should be criminated. He further argued that criminal law should not only protect criminal activities that directly affect people, but rather should protect society from adverse effects imposed by individuals both in public and in private (Cane 22). Herbert Hart reacted against the argument of Devlin in a radio broadcast. Hart argued with regard to the â€Å"harm principle† by J. S Mills. He argued that the only reason in which power can be correctly exercised over any individual in soci ety against his will is, to ensure no harm imposed to others by the individual (Cane 23). An argumentative debate between the two individuals ensued, both of them believing their side of the argument to be reasonable. Devlin argued that the society supposed to be united by legal and moral conducts. Therefore, any actions that jeopardizes society’s norms should be criminated (Cane 24). The society supposed to impose its morality so that cultural values and believes can be maintained. Hart argued against this argument claiming that Devlin did not provide factual evidence of his arguments. Hart claimed that society norms are widely used; therefore, using them to deny a group of people to conduct their private activities is not respecting the morals of individuals. Some contributions made regarding the subject of law and morals of society (Cane 25). Therefore, in order to establish a valid argument of the case standards ought to be set and difference between harm and moral standa rds should be established. In addition, a relationship between law and morality should also be discussed in details. The debate sparked by the report established by wolfenden committee. The committee was established to put in consideration the law governing prostitution and male homosexual behavior. Nonetheless, the debate that ensued concentrated on the subject of sexual conduct and morals. The committee was discussing the issue of criminal activities with regard to homosexuality. The debate concentrated on criminal law and did not put in consideration other forms of law (Cane 26). The society plays a significant role to play with regard to ensuring the community and the country at large behave accordingly. According to Devlin, the actions of individuals can affect the outlook of the entire society. Therefore, when lawmakers are developing laws they should put into consideration a person’s liberty (Cane 27). In addition, technological advancement is changing overtime; theref ore, it is reasonable enough for the society to come to terms with the changes. Devlin’s view After the committee published its report, Devlin was quick to respond to the report through a public lecture. Devlin argued that morals and laws should go hand in hand. Behavior of an individual does not only affect the individual alone but the entire society (Cane 28). Therefore, legalizing homosexuality is offensive to the society as it goes against the moral standards of the society. the society’s cultural values should be protected by the law. Devlin’s argument meant to protect the society through the

Business Analysis of Wal-Mart Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Analysis of Wal-Mart - Research Paper Example Currently, Wal-Mart has about 4,573 stores worldwide along with 730,000 associates that are evident in the form of their presence in fourteen countries (Vatalyst, 2012). In Canada, Brazil, Argentina and United Kingdom, Wal-Mart has wholly owned operations while it has several joint ventures in China along with some majority owned subsidiaries. In many international stores, Wal-Mart operates under various banners with one aim that is to provide best quality products at low prices so that customers can save money and live a better life as well. The primary idea behind the establishment of Wal-Mart was to provide high quality branded products at low prices. In order to have low prices, the company ensures that the cost is kept to a minimum level with the help of excellence in warehousing as it has developed cordial relations with its suppliers and advancements in information technology have helped the store to ensure that inventory level is properly maintained (Piercy, Cravens & Lane, 2 010). Economic trends influencing business Wal-Mart has been severely impacted by economic recession and increase in costs of transportation and utilities. The second quarter forecast of corporation reported that the share prices are lower and profits also reduced considerably as compared to first quarter profits (Cheng, 2012). Lately, shares of Wal-Mart went down to $56.74 which meant it reduced by 2.2%. Other costs that have impacted Wal-Mart’s sales are increase in commodities and fuel cost; as a result product placement and transportation became one of the major areas of concern for the store. The number of economic worries for consumers has increased significantly i.e. from gasoline prices that have reached highest prices to housing and credit markets that have declined radically. Such economic downturns have affected the spending power of budget conscious consumers who prefer to shop from Wal-Mart rather than do bargaining for their shopping. Since economic recession ha s impacted lives of USA consumers’, they are now shifting to Wal-Mart for shopping at low prices (Cheng, 2009). In order to cut down its cost, Wal-Mart has controlled its promotional activities as it needs to maintain certain profit level so that it can survive in such financial distressful situations. Wal-Mart still uses its tagline â€Å"Save Money. Live Better† and in order to reinforce this image it has expanded into generic drug prescription program. Currently, store is offering 90 days supplies of about 350 medications for $10 and also $4 over-the-counter drugs so it can expand its sales of pharmaceutical products and even bolster its store traffic. Strategies and Tactics used by Wal-Mart for addressing the changes Since Wal-Mart wants to reach more customers and observing that industries are getting global, Wal-Mart launched its website in 2010. It consolidated all its E-commerce activities worldwide into one Global E-commerce Division (Parker, 2012). The primar y objectives of this Division comprise of developing and executing a global strategy for E-commerce; provide acceleration for global growth of online channel and creation of technological platforms and applications for every market of Wal-Mart. In order to address the global changes that are taking place, Wal-Mart has revised its business strategies to incorporate these alterations in the market and ensure that they are aligned with organization’s main goal of providing superior quality products at low prices.

America Online :: essays research papers

Mission Statement "To become the world’s most respected and valued company by connecting, informing and entertaining people everywhere in innovative ways that will enrich their lives." Introduction America On-line (AOL), the largest commercial on-line service provider in the US, has been presented with a daunting task. Remaining a viable competitor in an increasingly crowded, fast- changing and competitive market. . Consumer services are entering a highly contested market that is expected to be even more competitive with the arrival of telephone and cable television giants in the months to come. For example, AT&T dealt a devastating blow for AOL as well as hundreds of other Internet providers by offering five hours per month free Internet usage to its approximately 90 million customers, 20 million of whom already have personal computers. AOL, the largest commercial on-line service, offers their customers more than access to the Internet. AOL features include chat rooms, electronic magazines, software and entertainment services. Analysts believe that such content makes these services less vulnerable in the short run to AT&T's offerings. A value-added feature of AOL is its proprietary system that it provides users access to proprietary content. For AOL, that which makes them unique (proprietary system), also makes them most vulnerable. AOL has aggressively marketed to the mass media of on-line users. Marketing efforts have focused on selling the idea of AOL as an easy-to-use, fun, interactive, "community" with a lot of content exclusively provided to its members. AOL distributes their software via direct mailings, inserts of diskettes as well as request forms for disks/CDs in magazines, downloadable web sites, OEM bundling agreements, media partnerships and retail sales. In 1995 AOL increased their level of direct marketing. As previously stated, AOL hopes to capture up to 97 million users, as well as expanding internationally. America On-Line: Customer Value & Satisfaction America On-Line it has delivered customer value and satisfaction by its narrow focus on average consumers, and its determination to make using its services simple and clear. AOL is known for providing the most convenient and easiest-to-use interactive service available. The company pioneered technologies such as keywords for simple navigation and the buddy-list feature to enable instant messaging by displaying member’s contacts who are online As the internet becomes more central to consumers daily lives, people are increasingly demanding ways, in addition to the PC, to access- anytime, any place- features and content they rely on.

A Little Wiggle Room

Today we will be looking at two articles written by University of California Psychology Director Craig Haney.   He specializes in the assessment of institutional environments especially the psychological effects of incarceration.He has written several scholarly articles and is involved in many research projects mostly specializing in the effect of incarceration and overcrowding, making headway into the understanding of the effect an overtaxed system has on an individual.He looks at issues such as recidivism, prison violence, mental and emotional disorders and the long term effect of solitary or supermax facilities when inflicted on lower security inmates due to overpopulation.In these two articles entitled â€Å"The Wages of Prison Overcrowding† and â€Å"Prison Overcrowding: Harmful Consequences and Dysfunctional Reactions† I believe Haney tries to not only explain the great toll that overcrowding has on an individual as well as the taxpayer, but offers solutions to ease out of the current trend spending more tax dollars converting facilities into sleeping quarters.â€Å"There is a clear association between the restriction of living space and the occurrence of disciplinary violations.† (Haney 2)   Haney goes on to point out the fact that when a prison is filled beyond its capacity, there is less of everything to go around, causing hoarding, violence and tension between prisoners.Prisoners are forced to do without basic necessities such as showers and toilets being forced to wait for availability increasing tension inside the facility.Guards are left unable to control the already agitated population caused when people who may already be lacking social skills necessary to function in everyday life are forced to live in close quarters with others.   The current solution most prisons call for is more staff, better armaments for the staff, and better punitive measures with which to control the inmates, making the prison more painful and h armful to the inmates.Areas normally reserved for recreational facilities make way for bed space with basic security contributing to inmate idleness and inactivity further worsening the problem.The prisoners are left with less to do and less outlets for releasing tension, the rates of prisoner animosity towards each other rises, as well as towards the guard’s.Facilities generally used to rehabilitate prisoners, such as education and prison work facilities are transformed into bed space, leaving prisoners with unfilled needs, adding to the problem of recidivism.He has shown that a majority of prisoners read at or below a third grade level calling them â€Å"marginally literate† (Haney 5) and points out they leave prison in very much the same condition.Unprepared and therefore unable to function as normal productive citizens with a lack of education and basic job skills, they return to their old ways and end up back inside the system in much the same condition they left prison in.  In his articles Haney attempts to inform not just his fellow scholars, but also the individual states and penal systems on the effects they are having on the people theYincarcerate.How being pushed through a system too overworked to notice a prisoner with special needs such as mental of emotional disabilities can have a serious effect on the people they are forced to live in close quarters with.   This eventually leads to a breakdown of the prisoner moral, leading to dissention, and prison violence.These articles are a great starting point for any discussion into prison life, recidivism, prison overcrowding or assessments on how tax dollars should be spent.   I share the author’s belief that if nothing is done and eventual breakdown of the prison system is inevitable.He points out that the current solution, bringing in more weapons and more brutal tactics by guards can have an even worse effect on the individual prisoner, causing low risk inmates into recidi vism.   Tactics that enforce order and control over inmates rather than improving living conditions often worsen violence inside prison walls.Rather than deal with the issues that caused the potential violence in the first place they fight fire with fire.  Ã‚   While (overcrowding) â€Å"is not the only cause of the sometimes dangerous conditions and potential for abuse that exists in many of our nation’s prisons, it is a central and critical issue that must be effectively addressed if these other problems are to be solved.† (Haney 12)SourcesHaney, Craig. â€Å"Prison Overcrowding: Harmful Consequences and Dysfunctional  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reactions.† prisoncommission.org. 2 Nov 2008. Commission of Safety and Abuse inAmericas Prisons. 3 Feb. 2009 Haney, Craig. â€Å"The Wages of Prison Overcrowding: Harmful Psychological  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Consequences and Dysfunctional Correctional Reactions.† http://law.wustl.edu/. 5  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dec. 2008. Washington U niversity Law School. 3 Feb. 2009.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Toltec Empire - Semi-Mythical Legend of the Aztecs

The Toltecs and the Toltec Empire is a semi-mythical legend reported by the Aztecs that appears to have had some reality in prehispanic Mesoamerica. But the evidence for its existence as a cultural entity is conflicting and contradictory. The empire, if thats what it was (and it probably was not), has been at the heart of a long-standing debate in archaeology: where is the ancient city of Tollan, a city described by the Aztecs in oral and pictorial histories as the center of all art and wisdom? And who were the Toltecs, the legendary rulers of this glorious city? Fast Facts: Toltec Empire The Toltec Empire was a semi-mythical origin story told by the Aztecs.  Aztec oral histories described the Toltec capital Tollan as having buildings made of jade and gold.  The Toltecs were said to have invented all the arts and sciences of the Aztecs, and their leaders were the noblest and wisest of people.  Archaeologists associated Tula with Tollan, but the Aztecs were ambivalent about where the capital was.   The Aztec Myth of the Toltecs Aztec oral histories and their surviving codexes describe the Toltecs as wise, civilized, wealthy urban people  who lived in Tollan, a city filled with buildings made of jade and gold. The Toltecs, said the historians, invented all the arts and sciences of Mesoamerica, including the Mesoamerican calendar; they were led by their wise king Quetzalcoatl. For the Aztecs, the Toltec leader was the ideal ruler, a noble warrior who was learned in the history and priestly duties of Tollan and had the qualities of military and commercial leadership. The Toltec rulers led a warrior society that included a storm god (Aztec  Tlaloc or Maya  Chaac), with Quetzalcoatl at the heart of the origin myth. The Aztec leaders claimed they were descendants of the Toltec leaders, establishing a semi-divine right to rule. The Myth of Quetzalcoatl The Aztec accounts of the Toltec myth say that Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl was a wise, old humble king who taught his people to write and measure time, to work gold, jade, and feathers, to grow cotton, dye it and weave it into fabulous mantles, and to raise maize and cacao. In the 15th century, the Aztecs said he was born in the year 1 Reed (equivalent to the year 843 CE) and died 52 years later in the year 1 Reed (895 CE). He built four houses for fasting and prayer and a temple with beautiful columns carved with serpent reliefs. But his piety excited anger among the sorcerers of Tollan, who were intent on destroying his people. The sorcerers tricked Quetzalcoatl into drunken behavior that shamed him so he fled east, reaching the edge of the sea. There, dressed in divine feathers and a turquoise mask, he burned himself up and rose into the sky, becoming the morning star. Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec and Aztec god; the plumed serpent, god of the wind, learning and the priesthood, master of life, creator and civiliser, patron of every art and inventor of metallurgy (manuscript). Bridgeman Art Library / Getty Images Aztec accounts dont all agree: at least one says that Quetzalcoatl destroyed Tollan as he left, burying all the marvelous things and burning everything else. He changed the cacao trees to mesquite and sent the birds to Anahuac, another legendary land at the edge of the water. The story as recounted by Bernardino Sahagà ºn (1499–1590)—who certainly had his own agenda—says that Quetzalcoatl fashioned a raft of serpents and sailed across the sea. Sahagà ºn was a Spanish Franciscan friar, and he and other chroniclers are today believed to have created the myth associating Quetzalcoatl with the conquistador  Cortes-—but thats another story. Toltecs and Desirà ©e Charnay The site of Tula in Hidalgo state was first equated with Tollan in the archaeological sense in the late 19th century—the Aztecs were ambivalent about which set of ruins was Tollan, although Tula was certainly known to them. French expeditionary photographer Desirà ©e Charnay (1828–1915) raised money to follow the legendary journey of Quetzalcoatl from Tula eastward to the Yucatan peninsula. When he arrived at the Maya capital of Chichà ©n Itzà ¡, he noticed serpent columns and a ball court ring that reminded him of those he had seen at Tula, 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) northwest of Chichen. The ruins of the Toltec site Tula were one of the ancient archaeological sites in the Basin of Mexico that awed the arriving Mexica and inspired their growth into the Aztec Empire. Travel Ink / Getty Images Charnay had read the 16th century Aztec accounts and noted that the Toltec were thought by the Aztecs to have created civilization, and he interpreted the architectural and stylistic similarities to mean that the capital city of the Toltecs  was Tula, with Chichen Itza its remote and conquered colony; and by the 1940s, a majority of archaeologists did too. But since that time, archaeological and historical evidence has shown that to be problematic. Problems, and a Trait List There are lots of problems trying to associate Tula or any other specific set of ruins as Tollan. Tula was fairly large but it didnt have much control over its close neighbors, let alone long distances. Teotihuacan, which definitely was large enough to be reckoned an empire, was long gone by the 9th century. There are lots of places throughout Mesoamerica with linguistic references to Tula or Tollan or Tullin or Tulan: Tollan Chollolan is the full name for Cholula, for example, which has some Toltec aspects. The word seems to mean something like place of reeds. And even though the traits identified as Toltec appear at many sites along the Gulf Coast and elsewhere, there isnt much evidence for military conquest; the adoption of Toltec traits appears to have been selective, rather than imposed. Traits identified as Toltec include temples with colonnaded galleries; tablud-tablero architecture; chacmools and ball courts; relief sculptures with various versions of the mythical Quetzalcoatl jaguar-serpent-bird icon; and relief images of predatory animals and raptorial birds holding human hearts. There are also Atlantean pillars with images of men in the Toltec military outfit (also seen in chacmools): wearing pillbox helmets and butterfly-shaped pectorals and carrying atlatls. There is also a form of government that is part of the Toltec package, a council-based government rather than a centralized kingship, but where that arose is anybodys guess. Some of the Toltec traits can be traced to the Early Classic period, of 4th century AD or even earlier. Atlantean warriors, Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, archaeological site of Tula, Mexico. Toltec Civilisation. De Agostini / C. Novara / Getty Images Current Thinking It seems clear that although there is no real consensus among the archaeological community about the existence of a single Tollan or a specific Toltec Empire that can be identified, there was some sort of inter-regional flow of ideas throughout Mesoamerica that archaeologists have named Toltec. Its possible, perhaps likely, that much of that flow of ideas came about as a byproduct of the establishment of inter-regional trade networks, trade networks including such materials as obsidian and salt which were established by the 4th century CE (and probably much earlier) but really kicked into gear after the fall of Teotihuacan in 750 CE. So, the word Toltec should be removed from the word empire, certainly: and perhaps the best way to look at the concept is as a Toltec ideal, an art style, philosophy and form of government that acted as the exemplary center of all that was perfect and longed for by the Aztecs, an ideal echoed at other sites and cultures throughout Mesoamerica. Selected Sources Berdan, Frances F. Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.  Iverson, Shannon Dugan. The Enduring Toltecs: History and Truth During the Aztec-to-Colonial Transition at Tula, Hidalgo. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 24.1 (2017): 90–116. Print.Kowalski, Jeff Karl, and Cynthia Kristan-Graham, eds. Twin Tollans: Chichà ©n Itzà ¡, Tula and the Epiclassic to Early Postclassic Mesoamerican World. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2011.  Ringle, William M., Tomas Gallareta Negron, and George J. Bey. The Return of Quetzalcoatl: Evidence for the Spread of a World Religion During the Epiclassic Period. Ancient Mesoamerica 9 (1998): 183-–232.  Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs. 3rd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.  ---. Toltec Empire. The Encyclopedia of Empire. Ed. MacKenzie, John M. London: John Wiley Sons, Ltd., 2016.